List of Abbreviations . . x
Note on References and Translations . . xi

Introduction . . 1
1. How Animals Mean . . 28
2. Marie de France: the Courtly Fable . . 53
3. Nigel of Longchamp's Speculum stultorum . . 98
4. The Owl and the Nightingale . . 149
5. Chaucerian Birds . . 192
6. Reynard in England . . 220
7. Henryson: the Epicized Fable . . 262
Conclusion . . 306

Appendix 1: Suggested Identifications of Marie de France . . 309
Appendix 2: Narrative Summary of the Speculum stultorum . . 312
Appendix 3: The Epistle to William . . 314
Appendix 4: Gallus et vulpes . . 318
Bibliography . . 326
Index of Fables cited .. 365
Index . . 369