FOREWORD . . 9

TRAFFICKING FOR FORCED LABOUR AND LABOUR EXPLOITATION - SETTING THE SCENE . . 11
Introduction, project background and objectives . . 11
Literature and data collection issues . . 13
A brief overview of key international instruments concerning trafficking in human beings and forced labour . . 17
The three country reports . . 24
References . . 26

WORK ON ANY TERMS: TRAFFICKING FOR FORCED LABOUR AND EXPLOITATION OF MIGRANT WORKERS IN FINLAND . . 31
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND NATIONAL LEGISLATION . . 31
1.1 Terminology . . 32
1.2 National legislation . . 33
CHAPTER 2: THE FINNISH CONTEXT . . 39
2.1 Institutional framework and data collection . . 39
2.2 Previous research in Finland . . 40
2.3 Reported crimes and court judgements . . 42
2.4 The assistance system for victims of human trafficking . . 43
2.5 The number of migrant workers in Finland . . 44
CHAPTER 3: DATA AND METHODS . . 48
3.1 The research questions . . 48
3.2 Expert interviews . . 49
3.3 Victim interviews . . 51
3.4 Court data . . 53
3.5 Pre-trial investigation materials . . 58
3.6 Media material . . 59
3.7 National expert meetings . . 60
CHAPTER 4: BEFORE ARRIVING IN FINLAND . . 61
4.1 Countries of origin and sectors . . 61
4.2 Victims and exploited workers . . 63
4.3 Perpetrators . . 64
4.4 Recruitment . . 66
4.5 Work permits . . 73
4.6 Travel arrangements . . 75
CHAPTER 5: FORMS OF EXPLOITATION IN FINLAND . . 77
5.1 Physical control . . 77
5.2 Other means of control . . 81
5.3 Economic control and other deficiencies regarding the terms of employment . . 90 
CHAPTER 6: IDENTIFYING AND HELPING VICTIMS . . 106
6.1 How cases of exploitation are found out . . 106
6.2 Victim identification . . 107
6.3 Assisting victims of human trafficking within the official system of assistance . . 111 
6.4 Victims' experiences and views regarding assistance and help . . 113 
CHAPTER 7: CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION AND COURT PROCEEDINGS . . 116 
7.1 Which unit is responsible for the investigation? . . 116
7.2 The length of the investigation . . 118
7.3 Interrogation . . 119
7.4 Problems regarding the evidence . . 121
7.5 Difficult crime labels and elements of crimes . . 122
7.6 Prosecution and non-prosecution . . 124
7.7 Lenient sanctions . . 125
7.8 The satisfaction of the victims and its impact on the criminal justice process . . 126 
CHAPTER 8: WHAT IS TRAFFICKING FOR FORCED LABOUR? . . 130
8.1 The definition of human trafficking . . 130
8.2 Examples from other countries . . 132
8.3 Conclusions related to the definition . . 135
CHAPTER 9: SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . 138
SOURCES AND REFERENCES . . 142

TRAFFICKING FOR FORCED LABOUR IN POLAND . . 165
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND TERMINOLOGY . . 165
CHAPTER 2: THE POLISH CONTEXT . . 171
2.1 Social context . . 172
2.2 Legal context . . 173
CHAPTER 3: DATA AND METHODS . . 184
3.1 Research questions . . 184
3.2 Data and methods used . . 185
3.3 Ethical questions related to the research . . 191
CHAPTER 4: ANALYSIS OF RESEARCH RESULTS . . 193
4.1 General information about the forced labour phenomenon in Poland . . 193
4.2 Modus operandi of the perpetrators . . 196
4.3 Who are the victims? . . 198
4.4 Who are the perpetrators? . . 200
4.5 Working conditions and salary . . 202
4.6 Means of control used against the victims . . 203
4.7 Economic sectors affected . . 206
4.8 The legal status of the victims in the country of destination . . 208
4.9 Other related phenomena - agency or leased workers . . 209
4.10 Impacts of the recession . . 211
CHAPTER 5: LAW IN PRACTICE AND LAW IN ACTION, I.E. HOW THE JUSTICE SYSTEM AND LAW ENFORCEMENT DEFINE FORCED LABOUR . . 213
5.1 The difficulty of defining human trafficking . . 214
5.2 How the courts and prosecutors defined human trafficking for forced labour . . 216 
CHAPTER 6: SHORT DESCRIPTION OF THE SYSTEM OF ELIMINATION OF TRAFFICKING IN HUMAN BEINGS FOR FORCED LABOUR . . 220
6.1 Prevention . . 220
6.2 Identification of victims . . 220
6.3 Prosecution of the offence of trafficking in human beings for forced labour . . 224 
6.4 Punishing of the offence of trafficking in human beings for forced labour . . 227 
6.5 Assistance to victims . . 228
CHAPTER 7: HOW TO DO A STUDY ON TRAFFICKING FOR FORCED LABOUR . . 232 
7.1 General remark . . 232
7.2 Interviews with experts (mostly law enforcement and state officials) . . 232
7.3 Official data from all possible institutions . . 233
7.4 Press analysis . . 233
7.5 Criminal cases - law in action studies . . 234
7.7 Interviews with perpetrators . . 235
7.8 Public opinion polls . . 236
CHAPTER 8: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . 237
LITERATURE . . 241
Specific sources of information referred to in Chapter 3 . . 244
List of interviewed experts . . 245

TRAFFICKING FOR FORCFD T.AROUR AND LABOUR EXPLOITATION IN ESTONIA . . 246
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION . . 246
CHAPTER 2: BACKGROUND AND LEGISLATIVE FRAMEWORK . . 248
2.1 National definitions . . 248
2.2 Reflections on the current national situation . . 249
CHAPTER 3: DATA AND METHODS . . 254
3.1 Research questions . . 254
3.2 Data and methods used . . 254
3.3 Ethical questions related to the study . . 259
CHAPTER 4: LEGISLATIVE ANALYSIS . . 261
4.1 Procedural issues of labour exploitation cases . . 261
4.2 Lack of the legislation . . 264
4.3 Legislation amendments and developments . . 266
CHAPTER 5: PROBLEMATISATION OF HUMAN TRAFFICKING FOR FORCED LABOUR AND LABOUR EXPLOITATION . . 269
5.1 Media analysis . . 269
5.2 Labour migration to Estonia . . 275
5.3 Labour migration from Estonia . . 279
CHAPTER 6: THE NATURE OF EXPLOITATION . . 282
6.1 Recruitment . . 283
6.2 Elements of exploitation . . 285
6.3 Vulnerabilities of victims . . 291
CHAPTER 7: INSTITUTIONS AND AUTHORITIES DEALING WITH HUMAN TRAFFICKING . . 295
7.1 Citizenship and migration division of police . . 295
7.2 Centre of extradition . . 295
7.3 Estonian embassies abroad . . 296
7.4 Labour market organisations . . 297
7.5 Police . . 297
7.6 Prosecutor's office . . 299
7.7 The Labour inspectorate . . 300
7.8 Trade unions . . 301
CHAPTER 8: SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . 303
8.1 Summary . . 303
8.2 Recommendations . . 306
REFERENCES . . 308

TRAFFICKING FOR FORCED LABOUR: PROJECT SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . . 312
Summary of project activities . . 312
Pilot methodology . . 314
Summary of the research findings . . 317
Conclusions and recommendations . . 319
Literature . . 322

Annex 1: Pilot methodology table . . 324
Annex 2: Infopaper for Expert Interviews (Template) . . 334
Annex 3: Thematic Interview Template for Expert Interviews . . 335
Annex 4: Infopaper for Victim Interviews (Template) . . 337
Annex 5: Thematic Interview Template for Victim Interviews . . 338
Annex 6: Questionnaire of analysis of criminal cases in Poland . . 341
Annex 7: Questionnaire for the interviews with the victims of forced labour and for court cases analysis in Poland . . 343